Top

30-11-2016 | Juvenile idiopathic arthritis | Book Chapter | Article

17. Overview of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

Authors: Clara Malattia, Alberto Martini

Publisher: Springer Singapore

Abstract

To provide a general introduction to JIA with a particular emphasis on classification

Ravelli A, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet. 2007;369:767–78.PubMedCrossRef

Petty RE, Southwood TR, Manners P, et al. International League of Associations for Rheumatology classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: second revision, Edmonton, 2001. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:390–2.PubMed

Prieur AM, Le Gall E, Karman F, Edan C, Lasserre O, Goujard J. Epidemiologic survey of juvenile chronic arthritis in France. Comparison of data obtained from two different regions. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1987;5:217–23.PubMed

Moe N, Rygg M. Epidemiology of juvenile chronic arthritis in northern Norway: a ten-year retrospective study. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1998;16:99–101.PubMed

Peterson LS, Mason T, Nelson AM, O’Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota 1960e1993. Is the epidemiology changing? Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39:1385–90.PubMedCrossRef

Manners PJ, Diepeveen DA. Prevalence of juvenile chronic arthritis in a population of 12-year-old children in urban Australia. Pediatrics. 1996;98:84–90.PubMed

Berkun Y, Padeh S. Environmental factors and the geoepidemiology of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Autoimmun Rev. 2010;9:A319–24.PubMedCrossRef

Saurenmann RK, Rose JB, Tyrrell P, Feldman BM, Laxer RM, Schneider R, et al. Epidemiology of juvenile idiopathic arthritis in a multiethnic cohort: ethnicity as a risk factor. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:1974e84.

Arguedas O, Fasth A, Andersson-Gäre B, Porras O. Juvenile chronic arthritis in urban San José, Costa Rica: a 2 year prospective study. J Rheumatol. 1998;25:1844e50.

10.

Aggarwal A, Misra RN. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in India rarity of antinuclear antibody and uveitis. Indian J Pediatr. 1996;63:301–4.PubMedCrossRef

11.

Shapira Y, Agmon-Levin N, Shoenfeld Y. Geoepidemiology of autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2010;6:468–76.PubMedCrossRef

12.

Cassidy JT, Petty RE, Laxer RM, et al. Textbook of pediatric rheumatology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2005.

13.

Stoof SP, Heijstek MW, Sijssens KM, van der Klis F, Sanders EA, Teunis PF, et al. Kinetics of the long-term antibody response after meningococcal C vaccination in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a retrospective cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73:728–34.PubMedCrossRef

14.

Heijstek MW, Kamphuis S, Armbrust W, Swart J, Gorter S, de Vries LD, et al. Effects of the live attenuated measles-mumps-rubella booster vaccination on disease activity in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2013;309:2449–56.PubMedCrossRef

15.

Silva CA, Aikawa NE, Bonfa E. Vaccinations in juvenile chronic inflammatory diseases: an update. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2013;9:532–43.PubMedCrossRef

16.

Prahalad S, Ryan MH, Shear ES, Thompson SD, Glass DN, Giannini EH. Twins concordant for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:2611–2.PubMedCrossRef

17.

Glass DN, Giannini EH. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis as a complex genetic trait. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:2261–8.PubMedCrossRef

18.

Prahalad S. Genetics of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: an update. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2004;16:588–94.PubMedCrossRef

19.

Cobb JE, Hinks A, Thomson W. The genetics of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: current understanding and future prospects. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2014;53:592–9.CrossRef

20.

Prahalad S, Glass DN. A comprehensive review of the genetics of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2008;6:11.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

21.

Rosen P, Thompson S, Glass D. Non-HLA gene polymorphisms in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2003;21:650–6.PubMed

22.

Prahalad S, Ryan MH, Shear ES, Thompson SD, Giannini EH, Glass DN. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: linkage to HLA demonstrated by allele sharing in affected sib pairs. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:2335–8.PubMedCrossRef

23.

Hinks A, Cobb J, Marion MC, Prahalad S, Sudman M, Bowes J, et al. Dense genotyping of immune-related disease regions identifies 14 new susceptibility loci for juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Nat Genet. 2013;45:664–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

24.

Lee YH, Bae SC, Song GG. The association between the functional PTPN22 1858 C/T and MIF -173 C/G polymorphisms and juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a meta-analysis. Inflamm Res. 2012;61:411–5.PubMedCrossRef

25.

Lamb R, Thomson W, Ogilvie E, Donn R, British Society of Paediatric and Adolescent Rheumatology. Wnt-1-inducible signaling pathway protein 3 and susceptibility to juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:3548–53.PubMedCrossRef

26.

Barnes MG, Grom AA, Thompson SD, Griffin TA, Pavlidis P, Itert L, et al. Subtype-specific peripheral blood gene expression profiles in recent-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60:2102–12.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

27.

deKleer IM, Wedderburn LR, Taams LS, et al. CD4 + CD25 bright regulatory T cells actively regulate inflammation in the joints of patients with the remitting form of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Immunol. 2004;172:6435–43.CrossRef

28.

de Kleer I, Vastert B, Klein M, et al. Autologous stem cell transplantation for autoimmunity induces immunologic self-tolerance by reprogramming autoreactive T cells and restoring the CD4 + CD25+ immune regulatory network. Blood. 2006;107:1696–702.PubMedCrossRef

29.

de Kleer I, Vercoulen Y, Klein M, et al. CD30 discriminates heat shock protein 60-induced FOXP3+ CD4+ T cells with a regulatory phenotype. J Immunol. 2010;185:2071–9.PubMedCrossRef

30.

Moncrieffe H, Nistala K, Kamhieh Y, Evans J, Eddaoudi A, Eaton S, et al. High expression of the ectonucleotidase CD39 on T cells from the inflamed site identifies two distinct populations, one regulatory and one memory T cell population. J Immunol. 2010;185:134–43.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

31.

Prakken B, Albani S, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet. 2011;18(377):2138–49.CrossRef

32.

Hori S, Takahashi T, Sakaguchi S. Control of autoimmunity by naturally arising regulatory CD4+ T cells. Adv Immunol. 2003;81:331–71.PubMedCrossRef

33.

Wedderburn LR, Robinson N, Patel A, Varsani H, Woo P. Selective recruitment of polarized T cells expressing CCR5 and CXCR3 to the inflamed joints of children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:765–74.PubMedCrossRef

34.

Foell D, Roth J. Proinflammatory S100 proteins in arthritis and autoimmune disease. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:3762–71.PubMedCrossRef

35.

Foell D, Frosch M, Schulze zurWiesch A, Vogl T, Sorg C, Roth J. Methotrexate treatment in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: when is the right time to stop? Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63:206–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

36.

Foell D, Wulffraat N, Wedderburn LR, Wittkowski H, Frosch M, Gerss J, et al. Methotrexate withdrawal at 6 vs 12 months in juvenile idiopathic arthritis in remission: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2010;303:1266–73.PubMedCrossRef

37.

Kamphuis S, Kuis W, de Jager W, Teklenburg G, Massa M, Gordon G, et al. Tolerogenic immune responses to novel T-cell epitopes from heat-shock protein 60 in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet. 2005;366:50–6.PubMedCrossRef

38.

van Eden W, van der Zee R, Prakken B. Heat-shock proteins induce T-cell regulation of chronic inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol. 2005;5:318–30.PubMedCrossRef

39.

Massa M, Passalia M, Manzoni SM, Campanelli R, Ciardelli L, Yung GP, et al. Differential recognition of heat-shock protein dnaJ-derived epitopes by effector and Treg cells leads to modulation of inflammation in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:1648–57.PubMedCrossRef

40.

Vercoulen Y, van Teijlingen NH, de Kleer IM, Kamphuis S, Albani S, Prakken BJ. Heat shock protein 60 reactive T cells in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: what is new? Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11:231.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

41.

Weiss PF, Arabshahi B, Johnson A, Bilaniuk LT, Zarnow D, Cahill AM, et al. High prevalence of temporomandibular joint arthritis at disease onset in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis, as detected by magnetic resonance imaging but not by ultrasound. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:1189–96.PubMedCrossRef

42.

Wolfs JF, Arts MP, Peul WC. Juvenile chronic arthritis and the craniovertebral junction in the paediatric patient: review of the literature and management considerations. Adv Tech Stand Neurosurg. 2014;41:143–56.PubMed

43.

Allen RC, Dewez P, Stuart L, Gatenby PA, Sturgess A. Antinuclear antibodies using HEp-2 cells in normal children and in children with common infections. J Paediatr Child Health. 1991;27:39–42.PubMedCrossRef

44.

Brewer EJ, Bass JC, Cassidy JT, et al. Criteria for the classification of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Bull Rheum Dis. 1972;23:712–9.

45.

European League Against Rheumatism, EULAR Bulletin no.4: nomenclature and classification of arthritis in children, National Zeitung AG, Basel;1977.

46.

Petty RE, Southwood TR, Baum J, Bhettay E, Glass D, Manners PJ, et al. Revision of the proposed classification criteria for juvenile idiopathic arthritis: Durban, 1997. J Rheumatol. 1998;25:1991–4.PubMed

47.

Oen KG, Cheang M. Epidemiology of chronic arthritis in childhood. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1996;26:575–91.PubMedCrossRef

48.

Al-Matar MJ, Petty RE, Tucker LB, Malleson PN, Schroeder ML, Cabral DA. The early pattern of joint involvement predicts disease progression in children with oligoarticular (pauciarticular) juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:2708–15.PubMedCrossRef

49.

Hunter PJ, Nistala K, Jina N, Eddaoudi A, Thomson W, Hubank M, et al. Biologic predictors of extension of oligoarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis as determined from synovial fluid cellular composition and gene expression. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:896–907.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

50.

Martini A. Are the number of joints involved or the presence of psoriasis still useful tools to identify homogeneous disease entities in juvenile idiopathic arthritis? J Rheumatol. 2003;30:1900–3.PubMed

51.

Ravelli A, Felici E, Magni-Manzoni S, Pistorio A, Novarini C, Bozzola E, et al. Patients with antinuclear antibody-positive juvenile idiopathic arthritis constitute a homogeneous subgroup irrespective of the course of joint disease. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:826–32.PubMedCrossRef

52.

Ravelli A, Varnier GC, Oliveira S, Castell E, Arguedas O, Magnani A, et al. Antinuclear antibody positive patients should be grouped as a separate category in the classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63:267–75.PubMedCrossRef

53.

Saurenmann RK, Levin AV, Feldman BM, Rose JB, Laxer RM, Schneider R, et al. Prevalence, risk factors, and outcome of uveitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:647–57.PubMedCrossRef

54.

Saurenmann RK, Levin AV, Feldman BM, Laxer RM, Schneider R, Silverman ED. Risk factors for development of uveitis differ between girls and boys with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1824–8.PubMedCrossRef

55.

Petty RE, Smith JR, Rosenbaum JT. Arthritis and uveitis in children. A pediatric rheumatology perspective. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135:879–84.PubMedCrossRef

56.

Rosenberg AM. Uveitis associated with childhood rheumatic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2002;14:542–7.PubMedCrossRef

57.

Cassidy JT, Sullivan DB, Petty RE. Clinical patterns of chronic iridocyclitis in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1977;20(2 Suppl):224–7.PubMed

58.

Chalom EC, Goldsmith DP, Koehler MA, Bittar B, Rose CD, Ostrov BE, et al. Prevalence and outcome of uveitis in a regional cohort of patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:2031–4.PubMed

59.

Sabri K, Saurenmann RK, Silverman ED, Levin AV. Course, complications, and outcome of juvenile arthritis-related uveitis. J AAPOS. 2008;12:539–45.PubMedCrossRef

60.

Ooi KG, Galatowicz G, Towler HM, Lightman SL, Calder VL. Multiplex cytokine detection versus ELISA for aqueous humor: IL-5, IL-10, and IFN gamma profiles in uveitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47:272–7.PubMedCrossRef

61.

Thorne JE, Woreta F, Kedhar SR, Dunn JP, Jabs DA. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis: incidence of ocular complications and visual acuity loss. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;143:840–6.PubMedCrossRef

62.

Skarin A, Elborgh R, Edlund E, Bengtsson-Stigmar E. Long-term follow-up of patients with uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a cohort study. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17:104–8.PubMedCrossRef

63.

Sudharshan S, Biswas J, Ganesh SK. Analysis of juvenile idiopathic arthritis associated uveitis in India over the last 16 years. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2007;55:199–202.PubMedCrossRef

64.

Bowyer SL, Roettcher PA, Higgins GC, Adams B, Myers LK, Wallace C, et al. Health status of patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis at 1 and 5 years after diagnosis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:394–400.PubMed

65.

Oen K, Malleson PN, Cabral DA, Rosenberg AM, Petty RE, Reed M, et al. Early predictors of long-term outcome in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: subset-specific correlations. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:585–93.PubMed

66.

Lawrence JM, Moore TL, Osborn TG, Nesher G, Madson KL, Kinsella MB. Autoantibody studies in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1993;22:265–74.PubMedCrossRef

67.

Gorman JD, Criswell LA. The shared epitope and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2002;28:59–78.PubMedCrossRef

68.

van Rossum M, van Soesbergen R, de Kort S, ten Cate R, Zwinderman AH, de Jong B, et al. Anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibodies in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:825–8.PubMed

69.

Majka DS, Deane KD, Parrish LA, Lazar AA, Barón AE, Walker CW, et al. Duration of preclinical rheumatoid arthritis-related autoantibody positivity increases in subjects with older age at time of disease diagnosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2008;67:801–7.PubMedCrossRef

70.

Nielen MM, van Schaardenburg D, Reesink HW, van de Stadt RJ, van der Horst-Bruinsma IE, de Koning MH, et al. Specific autoantibodies precede the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis: a study of serial measurements in blood donors. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:380–6.PubMedCrossRef

71.

Ansell BM. Juvenile chronic arthritis with persistently positive tests for rheumatoid factor (sero-positive juvenile rheumatoid arthritis). Ann Pediatr (Paris). 1983;30:545–50.

72.

Leak AM, Millar-Craig MW, Ansell BM. Aortic regurgitation in seropositive juvenile arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1981;40:229–34.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

73.

Lovell D, Lindsley C, Langston C. Lymphoid interstitial pneumonia in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 1984;105:947–50.PubMedCrossRef

74.

Wallace CA, Huang B, Bandeira M, Ravelli A, Giannini EH. Patterns of clinical remission in select categories of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:3554–62.PubMedCrossRef

75.

van Rossum MA, Zwinderman AH, Boers M, Dijkmans BA, van Soesbergen RM, Fiselier TJ, et al. Radiologic features in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a first step in the development of a standardized assessment method. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48(2):507–15.PubMedCrossRef

76.

Oen K, Reed M, Malleson PN, Cabral DA, Petty RE, Rosenberg AM, et al. Radiologic outcome and its relationship to functional disability in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:832–40.PubMed

77.

Felici E, Novarini C, Magni-Manzoni S, Pistorio A, Magnani A, Bozzola E, et al. Course of joint disease in patients with antinuclear antibody-positive juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2005;32:1805–10.PubMed

78.

Barnes MG, Grom AA, Thompson SD, Griffin TA, Luyrink LK, Colbert RA, et al. Biologic similarities based on age at onset in oligoarticular and polyarticular subtypes of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:3249–58.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

79.

Hollenbach JA, Thompson SD, Bugawan TL, Ryan M, Sudman M, Marion M, et al. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and HLA class I and class II interactions and age-at-onset effects. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1781–91.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

80.

Ansell BM. Juvenile chronic arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol. 1987;66(Suppl):47–50.CrossRef

81.

Ostrov BE. What is the significance of dry synovitis? Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2004;2:114–8.

82.

Stoll ML, Lio P, Sundel RP, Nigrovic PA. Comparison of Vancouver and International League of Associations for rheumatology classification criteria for juvenile psoriatic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59:51–8.PubMedCrossRef

83.

Southwood TR, Petty RE, Malleson PN, Delgado EA, Hunt DW, Wood B, Schroeder ML. Psoriatic arthritis in children. Arthritis Rheum. 1989;32:1007–13.PubMedCrossRef

84.

Berntson L, Fasth A, Andersson-Gäre B, Kristinsson J, Lahdenne P, Marhaug G, et al. Construct validity of ILAR and EULAR criteria in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a population based incidence study from the Nordic countries. International League of Associations for Rheumatology. European League Against Rheumatism. J Rheumatol. 2001;28:2737–43.PubMed

85.

Stoll ML, Zurakowski D, Nigrovic LE, Nichols DP, Sundel RP, Nigrovic PA. Patients with juvenile psoriatic arthritis comprise two distinct populations. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:3564–72.PubMedCrossRef

86.

Flatø B, Lien G, Smerdel-Ramoya A, Vinje O. Juvenile psoriatic arthritis: long-term outcome and differentiation from other subtypes of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2009;36:642–50.PubMedCrossRef

87.

Oen K, Fast M, Postl B. Epidemiology of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in Manitoba, Canada, 1975-92: cycles in incidence. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:745–50.PubMed

88.

Stoll ML, Nigrovic PA. Subpopulations within juvenile psoriatic arthritis: review of the literature. Clin Dev Immunol. 2006;13:377–80.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

89.

Murray KJ, Moroldo MB, Donnelly P, Prahalad S, Passo MH, Giannini EH, Glass DN. Age-specific effects of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis-associated HLA alleles. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:1843–53.PubMedCrossRef

90.

Petty RE. Juvenile psoriatic arthritis, or juvenile arthritis with psoriasis? Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1994;12 Suppl 10:S55–8.PubMed

91.

Shore A, Ansell BM. Juvenile psoriatic arthritis – an analysis of 60 cases. J Pediatr. 1982;100(4):529–35.PubMedCrossRef

92.

Hafner R, Michels H. Psoriatic arthritis in children. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1996;8:467–72.PubMedCrossRef

93.

Battistone MJ, Manaster BJ, Reda DJ, Clegg DO. The prevalence of sacroiliitis in psoriatic arthritis: new perspectives from a large, multicenter cohort. A Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study. Skeletal Radiol. 1999;28:196–201.PubMedCrossRef

94.

Ramanathan A, Srinivasalu H, Colbert RA. Update on juvenile spondyloarthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2013;39:767–88.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

95.

Huemer C, Malleson PN, Cabral DA, Huemer M, Falger J, Zidek T, et al. Patterns of joint involvement at onset differentiate oligoarticular juvenile psoriatic arthritis from pauciarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:1531–5.PubMed

96.

Martini A. It is time to rethink juvenile idiopathic arthritis classification and nomenclature. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71:1437–9.PubMedCrossRef

97.

Thompson S, Barnes M, Griffin T, Grom A, Glass DN. Heterogeneity in JIA, impact of molecular profiling based on DNA polymorphism and gene expression patterns. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:2611–5.PubMedCrossRef

98.

Albers HM, Wessels JA, van der Straaten RJ, Brinkman DM, Suijlekom-Smit LW, Kamphuis SS, et al. Time to treatment as an important factor for the response to methotrexate in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61:46–51.PubMedCrossRef

99.

Wallace CA, Giannini EH, Spalding SJ, Hashkes PJ, O’Neil KM, Zeft AS, et al. Clinically inactive disease in a cohort of children with new-onset polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis treated with early aggressive therapy: time to achievement, total duration, and predictors. J Rheumatol. 2014;41:1163–70.PubMedCrossRef

100.

Beukelman T, Patkar NM, Saag KG, Tolleson-Rinehart S, Cron RQ, DeWitt EM, et al. 2011 American College of Rheumatology recommendations for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: initiation and safety monitoring of therapeutic agents for the treatment of arthritis and systemic features. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2011;63:465–82.CrossRef

101.

Ruperto N, Nikishina I, Pachanov ED, Shachbazian Y, Prieur AM, Mouy R, et al. A randomized, double blind clinical trial of two doses of meloxicam compared with naproxen in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: short- and long-term efficacy and safety results. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:563–72.PubMedCrossRef

102.

Zulian F, Martini G, Gobber D, Plebani M, Zacchello F, Manners P. Triamcinolone acetonide and hexacetonide intra-articular treatment of symmetrical joints in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a double-blind trial. Rheumatology. 2004;43:1288–91.PubMedCrossRef

103.

Eberhard BA, Sison MC, Gottlieb BS, Ilowite NT. Comparison of the intraarticular effectiveness of triamcinolone hexacetonide and triamcinolone acetonide in treatment of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:2507–12.PubMed

104.

Malattia C, Martini A. Glucocorticoids in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2014;1318:65–70.PubMedCrossRef

105.

Giannini EH, Brewer EJ, Kuzmina N, Shaikov A, Maximov A, Vorontsov I, et al. Methotrexate in resistant juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Results of the USA–USSR double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Pediatric Rheumatology Collaborative Study Group and The Cooperative Children’s Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:1043–9.PubMedCrossRef

106.

Wallace CA. The use of methotrexate in childhood rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:381–91.PubMedCrossRef

107.

Ravelli A, Martini A. Methotrexate in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: answers and questions. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:1830–3.PubMed

108.

Ruperto N, Murray KJ, Gerloni V, Wulffraat N, de Oliveira SK, Falcini F, et al. A randomized trial of parenteral methotrexate in intermediate versus higher doses in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis who failed standard dose. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:2191–201.PubMedCrossRef

109.

Hunt PG, Rose CD, McIlvain-Simpson G, Tejani S. The effects of daily intake of folic acid on the efficacy of methotrexate therapy in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. A controlled study. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:2230–2.PubMed

110.

Ravelli A, Migliavacca D, Viola S, Ruperto N, Pistorio A, Martini A. Efficacy of folinic acid in reducing methotrexate toxicity in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1999;17:625–7.PubMed

111.

Silverman E, Mouy R, Spiegel L, Jung LK, Saurenmann RK, Lahdenne P, et al. Leflunomide or methotrexate for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1655–66.PubMedCrossRef

112.

Lovell DJ, Giannini EH, Reiff A, Cawkwell GD, Silverman ED, Nocton JJ, et al. Etanercept in children with polyarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Pediatric Rheumatology Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:763–9.PubMedCrossRef

113.

Horneff G, Schmeling H, Biedermann T, Foeldvari I, Ganser G, Girschick HJ, et al. The German etanercept registry for treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63:1638–44.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

114.

Lovell DJ, Reiff A, Jones OY, Schneider R, Nocton J, Stein LD, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of etanercept in children with polyarticular-course juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:1987–94.PubMedCrossRef

115.

Lovell DJ, Ruperto N, Goodman S, Reiff A, Jung L, Jarosova K, et al. Adalimumab with or without methotrexate in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:810–20.PubMedCrossRef

116.

Ruperto N, Lovell DJ, Quartier P, Paz E, Rubio-Pérez N, Silva CA, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of abatacept in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1792–802.PubMedCrossRef

117.

Ruperto N, Lovell DJ, Quartier P, Paz E, Rubio-Pérez N, et al. Abatacept in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled withdrawal trial. Lancet. 2008;372:383–91.PubMedCrossRef

118.

Ruperto N, Lovell DJ, Cuttica R, Woo P, Meiorin S, Wouters C, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of infliximab plus methotrexate for the treatment of polyarticular-course juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: findings from an open-label treatment extension. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71:1106.

119.

Brunner HI, Ruperto N, Zuber Z, Keane C, Harari O, Kenwright A, et al. Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in patients with polyarticular-course juvenile idiopathic arthritis: results from a phase 3, randomised, double-blind withdrawal trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;74(6):1110–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

120.

Foeldvari I, Wierk A. Methotrexate is an effective treatment for chronic uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2005;32:362–5.PubMed

121.

Kilmartin DJ, Forrester JV, Dick AD. Cyclosporin A therapy in refractory non-infectious childhood uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:737–42.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

122.

Tappeiner C, Roesel M, Heinz C, Michels H, Ganser G, Heiligenhaus A. Limited value of cyclosporine A for the treatment of patients with uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Eye (Lond). 2009;23:1192–8.CrossRef

123.

Saurenmann RK, Levin AV, Rose JB, Parker S, Rabinovitch T, Tyrrell PN, et al. Tumour necrosis factor alpha inhibitors in the treatment of childhood uveitis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2006;45:982–9.CrossRef

124.

Tugal-Tutkun I, Ayranci O, Kasapcopur O, Kir N. Retrospective analysis of children with uveitis treated with infliximab. J AAPOS. 2008;12:611–3.PubMedCrossRef

125.

Lim LL, Fraunfelder FW, Rosenbaum JT. Do tumor necrosis factor inhibitors cause uveitis? A registry-based study. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:3248–52.PubMedCrossRef

126.

Biester S, Deuter C, Michels H, Haefner R, Kuemmerle-Deschner J, Doycheva D, et al. Adalimumab in the therapy of uveitis in childhood. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91:319–24.PubMedCrossRef

127.

Tynjälä P, Kotaniemi K, Lindahl P, Latva K, Aalto K, Honkanen V, et al. Adalimumab in juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated chronic anterior uveitis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008;47:339–44.CrossRef

128.

Sobrin L, Christen W, Foster CS. Mycophenolate mofetil after methotrexate failure or intolerance in the treatment of scleritis and uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2008;115:1416–21.PubMedCrossRef

129.

Zulian F, Balzarin M, Falcini F, Martini G, Alessio M, Cimaz R, Cimino L, Zannin ME. Abatacept for severe anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha refractory juvenile idiopathic arthritis-related uveitis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2010;62:821–5.CrossRef

130.

Heiligenhaus A, Miserocchi E, Heinz C, Gerloni V, Kotaniemi K. Treatment of severe uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab). Rheumatology (Oxford). 2011;50:1390–4.CrossRef

131.

Miserocchi E, Pontikaki I, Modorati G, Gattinara M, Meroni PL, Gerloni V. Anti-CD 20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) treatment for inflammatory ocular diseases. Autoimmun Rev. 2011;11:35–9.PubMedCrossRef

132.

Oen K, Malleson PN, Cabral DA, Rosenberg AM, Petty RE, Cheang M. Disease course and outcome of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in a multicenter cohort. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:1989–99.PubMed

133.

Oen K. Long-term outcomes and predictors of outcomes for patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2002;16:347–60.PubMedCrossRef

134.

Ravelli A, Martini A. Early predictors of outcome in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2003;21 Suppl 31:S89–93.PubMed

135.

Ravelli A. Toward an understanding of the long-term outcome of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2004;22:271–5.PubMed

136.

Adib N, Silman A, Thomson W. Outcome following onset of juvenile idiopathic inflammatory arthritis: II. predictors of outcome in juvenile arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2005;44:1002–7.CrossRef

137.

van Dijkhuizen EH, Wulffraat NM. Early predictors of prognosis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a systematic literature review. Ann Rheum Dis. 2015;74(11):1996–2005.PubMedCrossRef

138.

Foster HE, Marshall N, Myers A, Dunkley P, Griffiths ID. Outcome in adults with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a quality of life study. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48:767–75.PubMedCrossRef

139.

Aggarwal A, Agarwal V, Danda D, Misra R. Outcome in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in India. Indian Pediatr. 2004;41:180–4.PubMed

140.

Guillaume S, Prieur AM, Coste J, Job-Deslandre C. Long-term outcome and prognosis in oligoarticular-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:1858–65.PubMedCrossRef

141.

Fantini F, Gerloni V, Gattinara M, Cimaz R, Arnoldi C. LupiERemission in juvenile chronic arthritis: a cohort study of 683 consecutive cases with a mean 10-year follow-up. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:579–84.PubMed

Medicine Matters Rheumatology

Abstract