Abstract
A brief review is provided on the relationship of strength to muscle crosssectional area (CSA). It is commonly believed that maximal force and CSA are strongly related. Studies examining varying levels of training status display discordant data suggesting complex relationships between training status, CSA and peak force. It has been reported that trained participants had a significantly larger force to CSA ratio (F/CSA) than untrained males and females. Therefore, it is difficult to attribute all force changes due to training to CSA changes. In general, studies of CSA and strength suggest that sex differences may exist. For example, recreationally trained female weightlifters produced higher F/CSA than males at lower velocities of contraction. Definitive conclusions regarding sex differences, force production and CSA are difficult because of limited studies and equivocal results among these studies. Some studies have also examined the impact of aging on F/CSA. These studies seem to follow the same pattern as studies on sex differences and training status, with data suggesting that F/CSA varies unpredictably across ages and that differences may be attributed to factors other than age alone. In the papers reviewed, the relationship between force and CSA is neither consistent nor simple. Although some of the discrepancies between studies could be attributed to methodological variations, this does not seem likely to explain all differences. The F/CSA relationship seems complex, and future studies are required to elucidate the relationships among key factors in the expression of strength.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ikai M, Fukunaga T. Calculation of muscle strength per unit cross-sectional area of human muscle by means ofultrasonic measurement. Int Z Agnew Phys 1968; 26: 26–32
Fukunaga M, Miyatani M, Tachi M, et al. Muscle volume is a major determinant of joint torque in humans. Acta PhysScand 2001; 172: 249–55
Moss BM, Refsnes PE, Abildgaard A, et al. Effects of maximal effort strength training with different loads ondynamic strength, cross-sectional area, load-powerand load-velocity relationships. Eur J Appl Phys 1997; 75: 193–9
Dons B, Bollerup K, Bonde-Peterson F, et al. The effect of weight-lifting exercise related to muscle fiber compositionand muscle cross-sectional area in humans. Eur J ApplPhys 1979; 40: 90–106
Schantz P, Randall-Fox E, Hutchison W, et al. Muscle fibre type distribution, muscle cross-sectional area and maximalvoluntary strength in humans. Acta Phys Scand 1983; 117: 219–26
Young A, Stokes M, Crowe M. The size and strength of the quadriceps muscles of old and young men. Clin Phys 1985;5 (2): 145–54
Castro MJ, McCann DJ, Shaffrath JD, et al. Peak torque per unit cross-sectional area differs between strengthtrainedand untrained young adults. Med Sci Sports Exer 1995; 27: 397–403
Brechue WF, Abe T. The role of FFM accumulation and skeletal muscle architecture in powerlifting performance. Eur J Appl Phys 2002; 86: 327–36
Frontera WR, Meredith CN, O’Reilly KP, et al. Strength conditioning in older men: skeletal muscle hypertrophy andimproved function. J Appl Phys 1988; 64: 1038–44
Sale DG, Martin JE, Moroz DE. Hypertrophy without increased isometric strength after weight training. Eur J ApplPhys 1992; 64: 51–5
Maughan RJ, Watson JS, Weir J. Relationships between muscle strength and muscle cross-sectional area in malesprinters and endurance runners. Eur J Appl Phys 1983; 50: 309–18
Hubal MJ, Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, et al. Variability in muscle size and strength gain after unilateralresistance training. Med Sci Sports Exer 2005; 37 (6):964–72
Ichinose Y, Kanehisa H, Ito M, et al. Morphological and functional differences in the elbow extensor muscle between highly trained male and female athletes. Eur JAppl Phys 1998; 78: 109–14
Ryushi T, Hakkinen K, Kauhanen H, et al. Muscle fiber characteristics, muscle cross-sectional area and force productionin strength athletes, physically active males andfemales. Scand J Sports Sci 1988; 10 (1): 7–15
Hawley J, Stepto NK. Adaptations to training in endurance cyclists. Sports Med 2001; 31 (7): 511–20
Alway SE, Stray-Gundersen J, Grumbt WH, et al. Muscle cross-sectional area and torque in resistance-trained subjects. Eur J Appl Phys 1990; 60: 86–90
Bishop P, Cureton K, Collins M. Sex difference in muscular strength in equally-trained men and women. Ergonomics 1987; 30 (4): 675–87
Chilibeck PD, Calder AW. A comparison of strength and muscle mass increases during resistance training in youngwomen. Eur J Appl Phys 1998; 77: 170–5
Sale DG, MacDougall SE, Alway SE, et al. Voluntary strength and muscle characteristics in untrained menand women and male bodybuilders. J Appl Phys 1987; 62: 1786–93
Delmonico MJ, Kostek MC, Doldo NA, et al. Effects of moderate-velocity strength training on peak muscle powerand movement velocity: do women respond differentlythan men? J Appl Phys 2005; 99: 1712–8
Martel GF, Roth SM, Ivey FM, et al. Age and sex affect human muscle fibre adaptations to heavy-resistancestrength training. Exp Physiol 2006; 91 (2): 457–64
Doherty TJ. The influence of aging and sex on skeletal muscle mass and strength. Cur Opin Clin Nutr Met Care 2001; 4 (6): 503–8
Young A, Stokes M, Crowe M. Size and strength of the quadriceps muscles of old and young women. Eur J ClinInv 1984; 14: 282–7
Hakkinen K, Hakkinen A. Muscle cross-sectional area, force production and relaxation characteristics in womenat different ages. Eur J Appl Phys 1991; 62: 410–4
Lynch NA, Metter EJ, Lindle RS, et al. Muscle quality. I. Age-associated diffrerences between arm and leg musclegroups. J Appl Phys 1999; 86 (1): 188–94
Maclennan WJ, Hall M RP, Timothy JI, et al. Is weakness in old age due to muscle wasting? Age Ageing 1980; 9:188–92
Bruce SA, Phillips SK, Woledge RC. Interpreting the relation between force and cross-sectional area in humanmuscle. Med Sci Sports Exer 1997; 29 (5): 677–83
Roth SM, Martel GM, Ivey FM, et al. High-volume, heavy resistance strength training and muscle damage in youngand older women. J Appl Phys 2000; 88: 1112–8
Acknowledgements
The authors received no funding for the preparation of this review and have no conflicts of interest directly relevant to its contents.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jones, E.J., Bishop, P.A., Woods, A.K. et al. Cross-Sectional Area and Muscular Strength. Sports Med 38, 987–994 (2008). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200838120-00003
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200838120-00003